Tételek  / Topics 
STUDENTS OF PHARMACY, END-SEMESTER EXAM: TOPICS-1997-98.

Biological membranes. Movement of substances between the body fluid compartments. Osmosis and filtration.

Diffusion of electrolytes and non-electrolytes.

Blood plasma. Chemical composition: VALUES AND UNITS!. Proteins. Buffers.

Red blood cells. Sedimentation rate, hematocrit, osmotic fragility, diameter, RBC count.

Red blood cells. Erythropoiesis. Regulation of erythropoiesis.

Vitamin B12. Folic acid. Iron metabolism.

Hemoglobin. Structure. Function.

Catabolism of hemoglobin. Bilirubin metabolism, transport. Enterohepatic circulation.

White blood cells. WBC count. Types. WBC differential. 

Granulocytes. Production, morphology, types, function.

Macrophages. Circulating macrophages; production, morphology, function.

Lymphocytes. Production, types, morphology, function. Cellular immunity.

Immune mechanisms. Humoral immunity. Functions of the complement system. 

ABO blood groups.

The Rh blood group.

The platelets and their functions. Hemostasis.

Mechanism of blood clotting.

Fibrinolysis, anticlotting mechanisms, anticoagulants (in vivo, in vitro). Vitamin K.

Anatomy of the heart: chambers, valves. Origin and propagation of excitation in the heart. Pacemaker potential.

The morphological and functional characteristics of the heart muscle. The excitability of the heart muscle. The normal ECG.

The cardiac cycle. Variations in atrial, ventricular, and aorta pressures and volumes.  Heart sounds.

The effects of the autonomic nervous system on the heart. Effects of extracellular Ca and K ions on the heart.

Cardiac output. Normal values, regulation. Frank-Starling law.

Principles of hemodynamics. Flow, pressure and resistance. Poiseuille's law. The limitations of Poiseuille's law.

Principles of hemodynamics. Viscosity and resistance. Critical closing pressure. Laplace's law. Compliance.

The structure of the systemic and pulmonary circulation. Variations in flow velocity, the diameter of the vascular bed, pressure, and resistance in the systemic circulation. Blood reservoirs.

The arterial system. The structure of the wall of arteries. The compression chamber function of the large vessels. The arterial pressure. Definition, characteristics, measurement. 

Microcirculation. Structure. Types of capillaries. Characteristics of capillary circulation (diameter, velocity). Exchange of fluid between the capillary and the interstitium: filtration. diffusion.

The structure of the interstitium. Composition of the interstitium and lymph. Lymph vessels, lymphatic circulation. The function of lymphatic circulation.

Venous system. The wall of the veins. Central venous pressure and its significance. Factors maintaining and promoting the venous flow: muscle pump, the role of valves, the effects of gravity.

Regulation of circulation: autoregulation, basal tone, vasoconstrictor tone. The role of tissue metabolites, oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Regulation of circulation: renin-angiotensin; ANH.

Regulation of circulation: vasopressin, glucocorticoids, thyroid hormones.

Regulation of circulation: kinins, prostaglandins, histamine, serotonin, endothelins, NO (EDRF)

Adrenergic mechanisms in cardiovascular regulation. Adrenergic receptors. The role of adrenaline and noradrenaline.

Sympathetic innervation in the cardiovascular system. Sympathetic effects.

Parasympathetic innervation in the cardiovascular system. Parasympathetic effects.

The bulbar vasomotor area. Afferentation, efferentation, function. Baroreceptors. The carotis sinus reflex: functional range, effects, significance. 

Chemoreceptors. Chemoreceptor reflexes: functional range, effects, significance. Bezold-Jarish reflex. Bulbar chemoreceptors. Cushing reflex.

Cerebral circulation. Major cerebral arteries. Venous drainage. Regulation. Cerebrospinal fluid. Blood-brain barrier. Circumventricular organs.

Coronary circulation. Gross anatomical description. Functional characteristics, regulation.

Circulation of the skin. The triple response. Circulation of skeletal muscles.

Intestinal circulation. Circulation of the liver.

Fetal and placental circulation.

Pulmonary circulation. Gross anatomical description. Pressure. The effects of gravity. Regulation.

Airways. Gross anatomy. Function. Airways resistance. Regulation of the activity of bronchial smooth muscle. Regulation of bronchial secretion. Bronchoconstrictor and bronchodilator substances.

The mechanics of inspiration and expiration. Diaphragm and intercostal muscles. Tidal volume. Minute volume. Forced expiratory volume. Dead space. Intrapulmonar and intrapleural pressure. Surface tension in the alveoli.

Partial pressure. Gas exchange in the lungs: diffusion of gases, the Partial pressure gradients. 

Oxygen transport in the blood. Factors influencing the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen: the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curves.

Gas exchange in the tissues. Carbon dioxide transport in the blood.

Respiratory areas in the pons and medulla. Function, afferentation, stimuli. Reflexes in the regulation of respiration. Chemoreceptor reflexes. Comparisons of the effects of oxygen and carbon dioxide. 

The structure and functions of the skin. Glands.

Kidney: Gross anatomy. The nephron. Circulation.

Kidney: Glomerular filtration.

Kidney: The significance of "clearance".

Kidney: The fate of glucose and proteins/peptides in the tubular system.

Kidney: The fate of urea in the tubular system.

Kidney: Secretory processes in the tubular system. PAH.

Kidney: The transport of sodium and potassium in the kidney.

Kidney: mechanism of urine concentration and dilution. Osmotic diuresis.

The regulation of pH. Acidosis and alkalosis. The role of the kidney and respiration in the regulation of pH.

Volumenregulation. Osmoregulation.

GI system: functional anatomy. Characteristics and functions of the enteral nervous system and smooth muscle.

GI system: motor functions. The law of the gut. Peristalsis and segmentation.

GI system: hormones, paracrines, neurocrines.

GI system: gastric acid secretion.

GI system: salivary secretion. The exocrine pancreas.

GI system: bile.

GI system: transports of ions and water in the gut, the mechanisms of absorption and secretion.

GI system: digestion and absorption of carbohydrates.

GI system: digestion and absorption of proteins

GI system: digestion and absorption of lipids and vitamins.

Lipid soluble vitamins.

Water soluble vitamins.

Thermoregulation. Mechanisms of defense against heat and cold.

Thermoregulation. Fever and hyperthermia.

Basal metabolic rate. Energy value of foodstuffs.

Membrane transport mechanisms. Lipids, water-soluble substances, and ions. Facilitated diffusion. 

Primary and secondary active transports. Examples. The function of the Na-K pump.

Donnan equilibrium. Resting potential. K and Na permeability, ion pumps.

Action potential. Components, changes in excitability, all-or-none principle. Action potential of the heart muscle, excitation in smooth muscle, pacemaker potentials.

Ionic mechanisms of the genesis of action potentials. Voltage gated ion channels. Blockade of the voltage gated ion channels.

Electrotonic potentials. Characteristics, comparison with action potentials. Postsynaptic potentials, generator potentials. Ionic mechanisms.

Skeletal muscle. Generation and propagation of action potential. Molecular basis of muscle contraction-relaxation. Muscle proteins. excitation-contraction coupling. Calcium.

Neuromuscular junction. Denervation hypersensitivity. 

Types of contractions. Summation, tetanus. Isometric and isotonic contractions. Muscle length - contraction relationships. Fast and slow muscles.

Smooth muscle. Types. Electrical and mechanical properties. Chemical stimulation.

Comparison of electrical and chemical synapses. EPSP, IPSP.

The mechanism of transmitter release. The axon terminal. Calcium. Presynaptic inhibition. The fate of the released transmitters. 

Ligand-gated ion channels. Examples. Receptors linked to second messengers.

Inhibitory synapses.

Acetylcholine: synthesis, metabolism, receptors. Inhibition of cholinergic transmission. 

Serotonergic and histaminergic transmission. 

Adrenergic transmission. Synthesis, metabolism, receptors.

Amino acid transmission. Transmitter amino acids (excitatory and inhibitory), receptors, significance.

Organization of the autonomic nervous system. Ganglia. Sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. Neurotransmission in the ganglia and postganglionic neurons. The adrenal medulla.

Symptoms of cholinergic activation. Transmitters and receptors.

Symptoms of sympathetic activation. Transmitters and receptors.

The neuron: soma, dendrites, axon, axon hillock, synaptic terminal. Propagation of excitation. Convergence, divergence. Metabolism of neuron. NGF. Glial cells: types, functions.

Motor functions: spinal cord. Stretch reflex, flexor reflex. Locomotion.

The nigrostriatal dopaminergic system. Parkinsonism. 

The role of cerebellum and cerebral cortex in motor functions. The pyramidal system.

Spinal afferents. Dorsal root ganglion. Dorsal column ascending pathways. Spinothalamic system. Thalamus. Sensory cortex.

Pain. Types. Receptors, pathways, radiation. Inhibition of pain. Morphine and enkephalins.

Vision. Gross anatomy of the visual system. Tears. Functions of the pupil and the lens. Receptors. Visual cortex.

The functions of the vestibular system and the cochlea. Middle ear. Olfaction. Taste.

The EEG. Evoked potentials. The states sleep. The characteristics of the sleep states. 

Circadian rhythms: the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Major hypotheses of sleep regulation.

Hypothalamus. Gross anatomy: boundaries. Functions associated with the hypothalamus: regulation of food and water intake.

Dopaminergic, noradrenergic and serotonergic pathways in the central nervous system. Limbic system. Functions attributed to the frontal, parietal, and temporal association areas.

Speech, learning, memory. Lateralization. 

Growth factors. Interleukins, interferons etc.

The magnocellular and parvocellular hypothalamo-hypophyseal systems.

Hormones of the anterior pituitary. Classification, structure, structural homologies. Pro-opiomelanocortin-derived biologically active peptides. 

The endocrine functions of the pineal gland.

Somatomammotropic hormones. Growth hormone. Structure, functions, secretion, regulation. Deficiency and hyperproduction.

Somatomammotropic hormones. Prolactin. Structure, functions, secretion, regulation.

The posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis): oxytocin and vasopressin (ADH). Structure, function, regulation. Deficiency.

The thyroid gland: T3 and T4. Structure, synthesis. Inhibition of hormone synthesis.

The thyroid gland. Regulation. Deficiency and hyperproduction. Iodine metabolism. Goiter. 

The adrenal cortex. Synthesis of steroid hormones. Hormone receptors.

The adrenal cortex. Functions of glucocorticoids and sexual steroids. Regulation. Hypo- and hyperproduction. Stress.

The adrenal cortex. Functions of mineralocorticoids. Regulation. Hypo- and hyperproduction.

The endocrine pancreas. Insulin, glucagon.

Hormonal regulation of blood glucose concentration: effects of insulin, glucagon, steroids, growth hormone, adrenaline, T3/T4.

The parathyroid glands. Control of calcium homeostasis.

Vitamin D3. Formation and absorption of bones.

Hormonal regulation of the female reproductive function. Pregnancy.

Hormonal regulation of the male reproductive function.

Sexual differentiation.
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